Islamic art is the visual arts that were created since the 7th century by people who lived in the region which was inhabited or governed by culturally Islamic people. It’s a complex art form to describe as it spans across many different countries and diverse peoples over 1,400 years. It’s not a specific art of a religion or of a particular timeor location, or even using a specific medium such as painting. The vast world that is Islamic Architecture is topic of a separate article that covers fields as diverse like calligraphy, art pottery, glass, as well as textile arts, such as embroidery and carpets.
Islamic art evolved from a variety of source: Roman, Early Christian art as well as Byzantine styles were incorporated in the early Islamic architecture and art. influences from the Sassanian art of the pre-Islamic Persia was crucial; Central Asian styles were introduced with diverse nomadic incursions. Chinese influences had an influential impact on Islamic painting, pottery along with textiles.” Although the entire notion”Islamic art “Islamic art” has been criticized by some contemporary art historians, who have called it an “figment from imagination” or as a “mirage” however, the similarities between artworks created across a wide range of times and in different places of the Islamic world, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age has been enough to keep the term popularly used by experts.
Beginnings
Pre-dynastic
The fast expansion during the Islamic period is an precise beginning point for the label as Islamic art. The initial geographical boundaries of Islamic culture were found in the present day Syria. It’s difficult to differentiate the first Islamic objects from the earlier ones from Persian as well as Sassanid or Byzantine art. The change of the majority populace, which included artists, took a long time, often for centuries following the first Muslim conquerors. It was notable that there was an extensive production of unglazed ceramicsas evidenced by a famous small vessel kept in the Louvre which has an inscription that confirms its authenticity prior to its Islamic period. The motifs of plants were the most prominent in these early pieces.
Influences of the Sassanian art tradition are evident in the depiction of the King as a warrior as well as the Lion as a symbol of the virility and nobility. Bedouin tribal traditions mingled with more sophisticated styles of the conquered areas. Coins of the early period featured human figures depicted in their Byzantine or Sassanian style, possibly to assure users of their value prior to when the Islamic style of lettering was adopted.
Umayyad
Civic and religious architecture was built during the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750) during which time innovative ideas and plans were implemented.
The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is among the most significant buildings in the entire field of Islamic architecture, characterized by a distinct Byzantine impression (mosaic against gold backgrounds and a central layout similar to The Church of the Holy Sepulchre) However, it also has exclusively Islamic elements, like the magnificent epigraphic frieze. The desert palaces of Jordan as well as Syria (for instance, Mshatta, Qasr Amra in addition to Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living spaces reception halls, reception halls baths, and were decorated, including wall paintings that promoted the image of a royal palace.
Ceramics were quite primitive (unglazed) at the time. Metal objects have survived to this day However, it’s difficult to differentiate these objects from those belonging to the pre-Islamic era.
‘Abd al-Malik introduced standard coins which featured Arabic inscriptions, not pictures of monarchs. The rapid growth of localized coinage at when the dome of Rock’s construction illustrates the change in the direction of Umayyad culture. This was the time of the birth of a specific Islamic art.
At this time, Umayyad artists and artisans did not come up with a brand new language, but they began to use words in Mediterranean or Iranian late antiquity. They then adapted these to their own conceptions of art. The mosaics found in the Great Mosque of Damascus are inspired by Byzantine designs, but they replace the figurative elements with pictures of cities and trees. The desert palaces reflect these influences. By combining different traditions they were able to inherit and by adapting patterns and architectural elements the artists produced not much of a traditional Muslim art that is evident in the style of the arabesque. It is found on monuments as well as in the illuminated Qur’ans.
Abbasid
The Abbasid dynasty (750 AD – 1258) saw the move to the capital city to Damascus to Baghdad and later to Baghdad and finally to Samarra. The move to Baghdad was a major influence on culture, politics as well as art. The historian of art Robert Hillenbrand (1999) likens the shift to the genesis of the concept of “Islamic Rome” due to the fusion of Eastern influences with the influences of Iranian, Eurasian steppe, Chinese and Indian sources created a brand new concept that was the basis for Islamic art. Classical styles originated by Byzantine Europe along with Greco-Roman sources were abandoned to be replaced by those derived from the modern Islamic hub. The style for the new city Baghdad put it in its place in the “navel that is the entire world” according to historians of the 9th century al-Ya’qubi wrote.
The old city of Baghdad is not able to be explored well since it is situated under the present city. But, Abbasid Samarra, which was mostly abandoned and largely unexplored, has been extensively studied and is renowned for its remaining stucco reliefs where the early history of the arabesque is identified. Motifs found in the stucco found at Samarra can be used to date structures that were constructed elsewhere. They can also be found on objects that are portable particularly in wood, that date from Egypt all the way to Iran.
Samarra was the site of the “coming of the age” that was Islamic art. Polychrome-painted stucco was a vehicle the experimentation of new designs of carving and moulding. It was the Abbasid period also saw two significant developments in the field of ceramics that was the development of faience as well as metallic lusterware. Hadithic prohibition on the use of gold or silver-plated vessels lead to creation of metallic lusterware, a type of pottery which was produced by mixing metallic oxides and sulphur to vinegar and ochre. It was painted on a previously glaze-glazed vessel, and fired for a second time. It was costly, and it was difficult to control the second firing in the kiln, however the desire to surpass the quality of Chinese porcelain was the catalyst for the invention of this method.
Although the view regarding Abbasid artistic production centers predominantly upon pottery production, in reality the most significant advancement in the Abbasid period was the textiles. The government-run workshops, called tiraz were able to produce silks bearing the moniker of the monarch, which allowed the aristocrats to show how loyal they were to the monarch. The other silks were graphic. Silkware’s value as wall decor, entry ornamentation, and separation of rooms was not as crucial as its value as cash in this “silk way”.
Calligraphy began to be utilized as a decoration for the surface of pottery at this time. The Qur’an illuminated gained popularity and letter-forms became more complicated with stylized designs to the point that they slow how words are recognized in themselves.
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Medieval period (9th-15th centuries)
In the 9th century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces that were most distant from the Iraqi central region. The establishment of a Shi’a dynasty, the one from northern African Fatimids, followed by the Umayyads from Spain brought force to this faction and small dynasties as well as autonomy governors throughout Iran.
Spain along with the Maghreb
The first Islamic Dynasty to establish it’s own territory on the continent of Spain (or al-Andalus) was one belonging to Al-Andalus or Spanish Umayyads. The name of the dynasty suggests that they were a descendant of the great Umayyads from Syria. After their downfall in 1031, their successors, the Spanish Umayyads were replaced with diverse autonomous kingdoms, including the Taifas (1031-91) however, the art of the period is not different substantially from that of the Umayyads. In the late 11th century two Berber tribes known as those of the Almoravids and Almohads took over the head of the Maghreb and Spain in succession, and brought Maghrebi influences into the art world. A string of victories won by Christian monarchs reduced Islamic Spain at the close in the fourteenth century. that of Granada under the rule of the Nasirid Dynasty, which managed to hold their position until 1492.
Al-Andalus was a major cultural centre during Al-Andalus was a major cultural center of the Middle Ages. Apart from the great universities that taught sciences and philosophies that were unheard of to Christendom (such as the one of Averroes) The region was also a vital hub for the arts.
There were a variety of techniques employed to create objects. Ivory was widely used in making caskets and boxes. The pyxis of Al-Mughira is a masterpiece of this genre. Metalworkers created large, elaborate round sculptures which are usually rare throughout this part of the Islamic world, functioned as exquisite receptacles to store water or fountain spouts. Many textiles, mainly silks, were imported and are now found in the treasuries of churches of Christendom and were used as a covering for saints and Relics. In the period of Maghrebi rule, one can be able to observe a preference for sculptured and painted woodwork.
Art of northern Africa is not well understood. There is a lack of understanding about the Almoravid and Almohad Dynasties are distinguished by the tendency to be minimalist and simplicity, as is evident in mosques that had walls with no decoration. However, the luxury art was still produced in large quantities. It was the Marinid as well as the Hafsid dynasties created an important, though not well-known, architectural style as well as an extensive amount of sculpted and painted woodwork.
Arab Mashriq
The Fatimid Dynasty, who ruled in Egypt between 909 and 1171, brought knowledge and crafts from the troubled political region of Baghdad up to Cairo.
In 1070 The Seljuks were the dominant political power within the Muslim world after liberating Baghdad as well as defeated the Byzantines during the battle of Manzikert. In the time by Malik Shah the Seljuks excelled in architecture , and at the same when in Syria as the atabegs (governors of the Seljuk princes) took over the power. They were quite independent, and profited from conflicts with the Frankish crusaders. As early as 1171, Saladin took over Fatimid Egypt and put the transitional Ayyubid dynasty as the ruler of the throne. This time period is notable for its innovations in metallurgy as well as the wide-spread production of Damascus steel daggers and swords and production ceramics. glass , and metalwork of excellent quality were made without interruption. Enameled glass became a key craft.
In 1250 In 1250, the Mamluks took control of Egypt of the Ayyubids and, by 1261, had gained a foothold in Syria and also their most well-known leader was Baibars. The Mamluks are not an actual Dynasty since they didn’t follow an ancestral line of succession. In actual, Mamluks were freed Turkish and Caucasian slaves who (in the theory) transferred the power over to those who were of similar standing. This system of government continued for three centuries, up to 1517, which led to numerous architecture projects (many hundreds of buildings were constructed during this time) and patronage for the fine arts was mostly centered around enameled glass and metalwork and is referred to as the golden time of the medieval period in Egypt. The “Baptistere of Saint-Louis” located in the Louvre is an example of the excellent quality of the metalwork during this time.
Iran as well as Central Asia
In Iran and the northern part of India The Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Ghurids were fighting for supremacy in the 10th century and art was an essential aspect of the battle. The construction of great cities like Nishapur and Ghazni and the construction of the Great Mosque of Isfahan (which would be built in sporadic and irregular fashion over a period of many centuries) was begun. Funerary architecture was also developed and potters created their own distinct styles, such as kaleidoscopic decoration on a yellow background or marbled ornaments made by the use of colored glazes through the paint, or painting many layers of slip underneath the glaze.
Seljuqs, nomadic people from Turkic origin, originating from modern-day Mongolia were first introduced to the scene of Islamic history towards the end in the 10th century. They took over Baghdad in 1048, and then disappearing in 1194 in Iran but they continued to produce “Seljuq” artifacts continued until the middle of the 12th and the beginning into the 13th century, under the patronage of smaller patrons and sovereigns. In their time, the centrality of culture, politics and production of art shifted between Damascus in the middle of Baghdad and then to Merv, Nishapur, Rayy and Isfahan and Isfahan, all of which were located in Iran.
Popular patronage increased due to an expanding economy and urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture were more likely to be more focused on the patrons of the work. For instance, sultans, and viziers as well as lower-ranking officials are often mentioned in the inscriptions on mosques. The growth of the mass market and sales of art has made it more widespread and available to professionals and merchants. As a result of the an increase in production, a lot of relics are still in use from the Seljuk time period and can be easily dateable. The dating older works are more difficult to determine. Therefore, it is easy to confuse Seljuk art as a modern development instead of inherited from classical Iranian or Turkic sources.
Ceramics innovations from this time period include the creation of minai ware as well as the creation of vessels made not from clay, but from the silicon-based paste (“fritware”) and metalworkers began to make encrusting of bronze using precious metals. In the Seljuk period that spans across the region from Iran to Iraq the unity of book art can be observed. The paintings depict animals that carry a powerful symbolic meaning of treachery, fidelity, and strength.
In the 13th century, during the 13th century, Mongols under the direction of Genghis Khan took over all of the Islamic world. After his death, the empire was divided between his sons, and he created a number of dynasties, including for instance, the Yuan in China as well as the Ilkhanids in Iran and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and the southern part of Russia.
Ilkhanids
A flourishing civilization was established under the rule of these “little Khans” which were initially subordinate in their relationship to Yuan Emperor, however they quickly becoming independent. The pace of architectural development accelerated when the Mongols were sedentary and maintained their nomadic past including an orientation that was north and south of structures. In the same time, the process of “iranisation” occurred and the construction of buildings according to the previously established patterns including”Iranian plan” mosques “Iranian design” mosques, was reintroduced. It was also the time when the art of Persian book was also developed during this dynasty and was aided by the an aristocratic patronage of huge manuscripts like the Jami’al-tawarikh written by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani. The development of new techniques in ceramics was evident like the lajvardina (a variant of the luster-ware) and Chinese influence can be seen throughout all art forms.
The Golden Horde and the Timurids
The early art from the Nomads in the Golden Horde are poorly understood. Research is only just beginning and evidence of the development of town architecture and planning has been found. It also saw a substantial production of gold works that often display a substantial Chinese influence. The majority of these works are kept in the Hermitage.
The start of the third time period in medieval Iranian art and culture, the period of the Timurids and the Timurids, is marked with the arrival of a third tribe of nomadic tribes under the leadership of Timur. In the 15th century, this dynasty brought about an age of gold that was a golden age in Persian manuscript painting, which included famous painters like Kamal ud-Din Behzad, but there were a myriad of patrons and workshops.
Syria, Iraq, Anatolia
It is believed that the Seljuq Turks pushed beyond Iran into Anatolia and won an victory against the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert (1071) and establishing an independent sultanate that was not part of that of the Iranian part of the Dynasty. Their power appears to have diminished following the Mongol invasion in 1243, yet coins were produced under their names up to 1304. Architecture and objects combined different styles that were including Iranian and Syrian and sometimes making accurate the attributions of different styles difficult. The craft of woodworking was developed and at least one illustration manuscript dates back to the time of this writing.
Caravanserais were a common sight along the main trade routes in the region, and were located between the hours of travel. The building of these caravanserai inns increased their size the fortifications, their durability, and their replicability. They also began to incorporate central mosques.
The Turkmen were nomadic people who were settled in the area that is Lake Van. They were the builders of several mosques, like The Blue Mosque in Tabriz, and had a significant influence following the demise of Anatolia’s Seljuqs. Beginning in the 13th century Anatolia was ruled by tiny Turkmen dynastiesthat gradually reduced Byzantine territory. As time went by, a more significant dynasty arose, that of the Ottomans and, from 1450, were referred to as being the “first Ottomans”. Turkmen artworks are regarded as precursors to Ottoman art, and in particular those of the “Milet” ceramics, as well as the first blue and white Anatolian work.
Islamic book painting experienced the beginning of its golden age during the 13th century, mainly originated from Syria as well as Iraq. Influence of Byzantine aesthetics (blue with gold coloration, beautiful and triumphant motifs, symbolic of drapery) in combination with Mongoloid facial styles in 12th-century frontispieces of books.
Coinage from earlier times always had Arabic epigraphs. However, as Ayyubid society grew more global and multi-ethnic in its origins, coins started to incorporate the astrological and figural (featuring various Greek, Seleucid, Byzantine, Sasanian, and contemporary Turkish busts of rulers) and animal-related images.
Hillenbrand claims that the medieval Islamic texts known as Maqamat that were drawn and illustrated by Yahya Ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti were some of the first “coffee tables books”. The Maqamat were among the first books to serve as an image of the daily routine as depicted in Islamic art, presenting comical stories and showing very little or no traces of the pictorial art traditions.
South Asia
It is believed that the Indian subcontinent, with a few northern regions that were was conquered by Ghaznavids and Ghurids during the ninth century didn’t become independent until the year 1206, when Muizzi slave-kings took over the power, resulting in the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate. In the following years, other sultanates competing with Delhi were established within Bengal, Kashmir, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Malwa, and in the north of Deccan (the Bahmanids). They drew themselves small distance from Persian practices, leading to a fresh design of urbanism and architecture that was characterized by its interaction in Hindu art. Study of the creation of objects is not yet fully underway yet, however, the thriving practice of illumination of manuscripts is well-known. The sultanate period was ended when the arrival of the Mughals who gradually took over their territory.
The Three Empires
Ottomans
The Ottoman Empire which was founded are in the fourteenth century was up until the time of World War I. The long-lasting existence, coupled with an enormous geographical area (stretching across Anatolia across to Tunisia) and a wide range of people, led to an enduring and distinct art form that included numerous construction, massive production of ceramics, both vessels and tiles, particularly Iznik pottery, significant jewelry and metalwork, Turkish paper marbling Ebru, Turkish carpets as well as tapestries, and magnificent Ottoman miniatures as well as decorative Ottoman illumination.
Masterspieces from Ottoman manuscript illustration comprise two “books of celebrations” (Surname-I Humayun) the first of which dates from the the 16th century and the other dates back to the time of Sultan Murad III. These books have numerous illustrations, and show a significant Safavid influence. They could have been inspired by the books that were published in the time of the Ottoman-Safavid wars in late in the 16th century.
They Ottomans are also famous for their invention of a vibrant red hue, “Iznik red”, in ceramics. It was at its peak during the 16th century in both pottery and tile work with floral designs which were significantly altered by Chinese and Persian designs. The 18th century was when Ottoman art received a significant European influence, with the Turks adopting the styles of Rococo that had a long-lasting and unfavorable result, leading to a flurry of ornamentation.
Mughals
The Mughal Empire in India ran from 1526 until (technically) 1858 but beginning in the late 17th century power shifted from emperors to local rulers and then to European powers, including that of the British Raj, who were the most powerful power in India at the end of the 18th century. The period is notable for the high-end arts of the court as well as Mughal styles significantly influence locale Hindu as well as later Sikh rulers, too. The Mughal miniatures began with the importation of Persian artists, specifically the group of artists brought by Humayun during his the exile of Safavid Persia, but soon local artists, mainly Hindu were educated in the Mughal style. Realistic portraiture, along with pictures of plants and animals were created in Mughal art, far beyond what Persians have achieved so far in the past, and the size of miniatures was increased, and sometimes on canvas. The Mughal court was also able to access European prints as well as other artwork and they had a growing influence as shown by an increasing use of elements of Western graphic perspective, as well as more postures for the human figure. A few Western images were copied directly or taken from. In the court of local Nawabs were established distinct provincial styles that had more inspiration from classical Indian painting were developed within each of the Muslim and Hindu court of the princes.
The art of jewelry as well as stone carvings made of hardstone, like jade, jasper and rubies, diamonds and emeralds were mentioned by Mughal chronicler Abu’l Fazl, and a variety of examples are preserved as well as the series of daggers made from hard stone that are shaped like heads of horses is especially striking.
It is believed that the Mughals were also master metallurgists. and created Damascus steel, and further refined the locally made Wootz Steel. The Mughals were also the first to introduce the “bidri” method of metalwork where silver motifs are applied to the backdrop of black. Famous Mughal metalurgists such as Ali Kashmiri and Muhammed Salih Thatawi designed the seamless celestial planets.
Safavids and Qajars
It is believed that the Iranian Safavids a lineage that ran from 1501 to 1786 distinguished from Mughal as well as Ottoman Empires and the previous Persian rulers, mainly due to the Shi’a religion of its shahs. helped to establish the most popular denomination in Persia. Ceramics are characterized by the significant impact from Chinese porcelain, which is often made with white and blue. Architecture thrived, reaching its peak in the construction programme that was undertaken by Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which comprised numerous gardens and palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an enormous bazaar, as well as an enormous imperial mosque.
The art of illuminated manuscripts was also elevated particularly within the Shah Tahmasp Shahnameh, an massive reproduction of Ferdowsi’s poem that contains more than 250 drawings. The 17th century was when, a new kind of painting developed and is based on albums (muraqqa). Albums were the work of connoisseurs who bind single sheets of drawings, paintings or calligraphy of different artists, often reprinted from earlier books, but sometimes created as separate work. The works of Reza Abbasi feature prominently in the new style of the book. They depict two or more models, often beautiful women in a garden setting, typically using grisaille techniques used previously to create border paintings for backgrounds.
Following the fall of the Safavids The Qajars were an ancient Turkmen tribe founded over the long ago on the banks of the Caspian Sea, assumed power. Qajar art exhibits an increasing European influence, such as the huge oil paintings depicting Qajars and the Qajar shahs. Steelwork has also gained an increased importance. Much like the Ottomans as well, the Qajar Dynasty was able to survive until 1925, just a few years following that of the First World War.
Modern period
In the 15th century small Islamic courts started to decrease due to the fact that the Ottoman Empire and, later the Safavids as well as European powerhouses, ate them up. This was a negative impact on Islamic art that was typically guided through the patronage and support of the courts. At least from the 18th century onwards the elite Islamic art was becoming increasingly influenced by European styles. In the same way, the applied arts , it was either mostly adopting Western styles, or simply stopped to develop, but retaining the style was in fashion at some point during the 18th or 19th century. A number of industries with lengthy history, like pottery production in Iran which was largely shut down and others, such as the brass work of metal, were mostly stale and a large portion of their output going to the public or being sold as exotica from the oriental world.
The industry of carpets has remained big, but it mostly utilizes designs that date back to before the year 1800, and is in competition with imitations made by machines both locally and across the globe. Arts and crafts that have more of a socially-based base such as tile mosaics made of zellige found in the Maghreb are often more successfully. Islamic countries have been able to develop contemporary and modern art with a thriving art scene in certain countries, however the degree to which they are to be classified under a specific category of “Islamic arts” is a matter of debate, even though numerous artists work with Islamic themes and incorporate traditional elements, such as calligraphy. Particularly in oil-rich areas in the Islamic world, a lot of modern interior and architectural design employs designs and elements that are derived from the tradition in Islamic art.
Islamic art isn’t only restricted to the realm of religion, but encompasses all of the arts and crafts from the many and diverse culture of Islamic societies, too. It often includes secular elements as well as elements that are considered unacceptable, even in some cases even forbidden by certain Islamic theologians. Apart from the constant calligraphic inscriptions, particularly religious art is less prevalent among Islamic art than it is in Western medieval art and art, except for Islamic architecture in which mosques and the complexes that surround them buildings are the main remnants. Paintings depicting religious scenes can be used for scenes, but typically in predominantly secular settings like interior walls in palaces, or illuminated poetry books. The calligraphy and ornamentation of the Qur’an manuscripts is a significant aspect however other art of the religious kind like glass mosque lamps and other fittings for mosques like tiles (e.g. Girih tiles) as well as carpets, woodwork and woodwork typically have the same style and themes as contemporary secular art, the inscriptions of religious significance are even more prominent.
There are elements that repeat that are common to Islamic art, like using geometrical designs of flowers or plants in an arrangement called the arabesque. The arabesque symbolism in Islamic art is frequently used to represent the transcendent, indestructible and unending character of God. The repetition of mistakes can be purposely used as a sign of humbleness by artists who believe only God is able to create perfection, though this notion is in dispute.
In general, but not always, Islamic art has focused on the representation of patterns, be it floral or geometric, or Arabic calligraphy rather than on human figures because it is believed by many Muslims that the representation of the human figure is idolatry, and thus an offense against God and is prohibited in the Qur’an. Human representations can be seen throughout the ages in Islamic art, and especially within the more intimate forms of miniatures where their absence is extremely rare. Human representations for the purposes for worship has been deemed idolatry, and is therefore prohibited in certain versions that are part of Islamic law, also known by the name of Sharia law. There are many representations of Muhammad the prophet of Islam from the past in Islamic art. Small , decorative images of humans and animals, especially when they hunt animals, are seen on secular works in many media of different times However, portraits took time to evolve.